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Insulin-Mediated Glucose Uptake
The molecular mechanisms of insulin-mediated glucose transport are intensively studied – GLUT4 (glucose transporter type 4) is a glucose transporter responsible for glucose uptake into adipocytes and muscle tissue
Importantly, in case of insulin resistance and type-2, the amount of GLUT4 is decreased and its translocation is impaired
Insulin resistance is characterized by inefficient mitochondrial coupling, low level of ATP, and the formation of excess amount of ROS
A study published in The Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle, shows that astaxanthin stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis in insulin resistant muscle via activation of AMPK pathway*
Astaxanthin
Astaxanthin accumulation in skeletal muscle has been shown to reduce hyperglycemia and ameliorate insulin secretion and sensitivity by improvement of glucose metabolism and β-cell dysfunction by GLUT4 regulation
Astaxanthin administration increases the translocation of GLUT4 transporter and PGC-1α, which increases the level of GLUT4
Study – Asia Pacific Clinical Nutrition
This double blind, randomized, placebo controlled study included 41 patients ranging from 30 to 60 years of age with type 2 diabetes who were not on insulin therapy.
Each patient consumed 8 mg of astaxanthin or placebo daily for 8 weeks. As a result, the astaxanthin group demonstrated an increase in adiponectin concentration and reduced visceral body fat, triglycerides, LDL cholesterol, and systolic blood pressure.
Zinc
Zinc ions can bind to insulin receptors and activate insulin signaling pathways
Believed that zinc ions inhibit glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta), serine/threonine protein kinase linked with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes
Study – Journal of Diabetes
After a year, 25% of the placebo group developed type 2 diabetes and of the zinc group, 11 percent developed type 2 diabetes.
The zinc group also had a lower fasting plasma glucose, oral glucose tolerance test, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance as well as lower scores for total and LDL cholesterol. There was also “significant improvement” in beta cell function seen in the zinc group
Additional
Zinc in pancreatic beta cells binds to several insulin molecules, six to be exact, forming what’s called an insulin hexamer for storage – insulin is produced and stored in the body as a hexamer (a unit of six insulin molecules)
Chromium
In the presence of insulin, the chromodulin molecule changes shape and location in the cell, triggering activation of a vital glucose transporter molecule called GLUT4
Study – The International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research
This study investigated the effects of chromium picolinate on elderly diabetic patients within a rehabilitation program.
Lithium
A study from the journal Diabetes found that lithium increases in glucose transport activity and causes a modest increase in insulin responsiveness
Although the authors concluded, “the effects of lithium on glucose transport and metabolism in skeletal muscle are strikingly similar to the persistent effects of exercise. These results support the possibility that lithium might be useful in the treatment of insulin resistance in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.”
When skeletal muscle tissues are treated with lithium, the levels of cell surface GLUT4 protein contents are increased
